FINDING AND DISCUSSION
According to theories above, the researcher explains the result of the research in this chapter. The researcher focuses on solving some problems which have been mentioned in Chapter I.
A. The Comparison Between Mandarin and English Phoneme Dealing with the Phonemic System
1. Initial Sounds
a) Labial
Labial is a sound made which uses one or both of lips.
1) Mandarin Pinyin “b”
Mandarin pinyin “b” is pronounced [p] with no aspiration. For example, the word bā (eight) is pronounced /pa/ with flat tone. English also has this phone like the word cap which is pronounced /kæp/. The difference between Mandarin and English is in Mandarin, the [p] is able to be placed in the initial syllable, but English does not have it, because if [p] is placed as the initial syllable, it must be pronounced aspirated [ph].
2) Mandarin pinyin “p”
Mandarin pinyin “p” is pronounced [ph]. For example, the word pa (scare, fear) is pronounced /pha/ with falling tone. English also has this phone such as the word pen which is pronounced /phen/.
3) Mandarin Pinyin “m” and “f”
Mandarin pinyin “m” and “f” are pronounced the same as English [m] and [f]. For example, the words ma (mother) and fan (rice) are pronounced /ma/ and /fan/. The examples of these phones in English are words me and fee which are pronounced /mi/ and /fi:/.
b) Alveolar
Alveolar is a sound that is formed by tip of tongue with teeth.
1) Mandarin pinyin “d”
Mandarin pinyin “d” is pronounced [t] with no aspiration. For example, the word da (big) is pronounced /ta/. English also has this phone like the word bat which is pronounced /bæt/. The difference between Mandarin and English is in Mandarin, the [t] is able to be placed in the initial syllable, but English does not have it. Because if [t] is able to be placed as the initial syllable, it must be aspirated [th].
2) Mandarin pinyin “t”
Mandarin pinyin “t” is pronounced [th]. For example, the word ta (he/she) is pronounced /tha/ with flat tone. English also has this phone such as in the word tape which is pronounced /theip/.
3) Mandarin pinyin “l” and “n”
Mandarin pinyin “l” and “n” are pronounced the same as [l] and [n] in English. For example, the words lai (come) and nan (difficult) are pronounced /lai/ and /nan/. The examples in English are the words loose and need which are pronounced /lu:s/ and /ni:d/.
c) Velar
Velar is sound which is formed with the back of the tongue close to or touching the soft part of the roof of the mouth.
1) Mandarin pinyin “g”
Mandarin pinyin “g” is pronounced [k] with no aspiration. For example, the word gan (sweet) is pronounced /kan/. English also has this phone like in word back which is pronounced /bæk/. The difference between Mandarin and English is in Mandarin, the [k] could be placed in the initial syllable, but English does not have it, because [k] which is placed in the initial position of word or syllable must be aspirated [kh].
2) Mandarin pinyin “k”
Mandarin pinyin “k” is pronounced [kh]. For example, the word kou (mouth) is pronounced /khou/. English also has this phone such as in the word cat which is pronounced /khæt/.
3) Mandarin pinyin “h”
Mandarin pinyin “h” is pronounced the same as [h] which English has. For example, the word hei (black) is pronounced /hei/. The example in English phone is in the word he which is pronounced /hi/.
d) Palatal
Palatal is sound which is formed with the back and middle part of the tongue close to or touching the roof of the mouth.
1) Mandarin pinyin “j”
Mandarin pinyin “j” is pronounced [c] with no aspiration. The example is the word jiao (sleep) which is pronounced /ciau/.
2) Mandarin pinyin “q”
Mandarin pinyin “q” is pronounced [k + c] with no aspiration. The example is the word qian which is pronounced /k+cien/. This is a special sound that Mandarin has but English does not have this phone.
3) Mandarin pinyin “x”
Mandarin pinyin “x” is pronounced [s] using the tongue body (see picture 3-a above). The example is the word xi (west) which is pronounced /si/. English does not have this phone, but it is almost similar to [s] in the word see which is pronounced /si:/.
e) Dental Sibilant
Dental Sibilant is sound which is formed with the tip of the tongue close to or touching the back of the upper front teeth.
1) Mandarin pinyin “z”
Mandarin pinyin “z” is pronounced [ts] without aspiration, but with an air pressure. It is almost similar to the “ts” in hats in English. The example is the word zi (son) which is pronounced /tsә /. In Mandarin, this is a phone, not a phoneme, because, it is a speech sound and not a stock of sound units. So, English does not have this sound as a phone.
2) Mandarin Pinyin “c”
Mandarin pinyin “c” is pronounced [tsh] with aspiration and almost similar to the "tsh" sound in "it's heavy". The example is the word can (shy) which is pronounced /tshan/. In Mandarin, this is a phone, not a phoneme, because, it is a speech sound and not a stock of sound units. So, English does not have this sound as phone.
3) Mandarin pinyin “s”
Mandarin pinyin “s” is pronounced [s] using the tongue tip (see picture 3-a above). The example is the word sì (four) which is pronounced /sә/. English has this phone. It is almost similar to [s].
f) Retroflex
Retroflex is sound which is formed with the tongue curled back so that it touches (or almost touches) the hard part of the roof of the mouth.
1) Mandarin Pinyin “zh”
In this sound, the tongue is thrown forward from the curled back position. It is pronounced [thsr] with no aspiration in English. It is almost similar to “rch” in “church”. The example is the word zhi (this) which is pronounced /thsrә /. English does not have this sound as a phone because in Mandarin this is a phone, not a phoneme. It is a speech sound and not a stock of sound units.
2) Mandarin pinyin “ch”
Mandarin pinyin “ch” is pronounced [ch] with aspiration. The example is the word che (eat) which is pronounced /chә /. This is a kind special sound that Mandarin has but English does not have this phone because there is no [c] with aspiration in English.
3) Mandarin Pinyin “sh”
Mandarin pinyin “sh” is pronounced [ ∫ ]. The example is the word shí (ten) which is pronounced / ∫ә /. English also has this kind of phone like the word she which is pronounced / ∫i /.
4) Mandarin pinyin “r”
Mandarin pinyin “r” is pronounced [r]. The example is the word ri (sun) which is pronounced /rә/. English has this phone. It is similar to [r] in the word race which is pronounced /reis/.
g) Other Comments on Initial Letters in Mandarin Chinese
1) Mandarin pinyin “w”
In Mandarin, this is a special case that the syllable "wu" is pronounced [u]. The example is the word wŭ (five) which is pronounced /u/. This case will be explained in allophone session. In general case, phone [w] is found in the word weì which is pronounced /wei/. English also has this kind of phone like the word we which is pronounced / wi /.
2) Mandarin pinyin “y”
In Mandarin, this is a special case the syllable “yi” is pronounced [i], and the syllable “yu” is pronounced [ü]. The example is the word yu (language) which is pronounced /ü/. It is similar when a native speaker of English says "yeee", then keeps the tongue exactly where it is and let the sound continue while the lip shape like saying “yuuu”.
2. Final Sounds
Final sounds in Mandarin contain some vowels. Some of them are simple final sound which contains one vowel; and compound and nasal final sounds which contain more than one vowel or nasal sounds.
a) Simple Final Sounds (One Vowel)
1) Mandarin pinyin “a”
Mandarin pinyin “a” is always pronounced [a], like the word mā (mother). It is pronounced /ma/ in high level flat tone. It is the same as [a] in the word nà (that). It is pronounced /na/ in falling tone. English also has this phone like in the word larva which is pronounced /larvә/.
2) Mandarin pinyin “e”
In Mandarin language there is no [æ]. The letter “e” is always pronounced [ә]. For example, the word dēng (lamp) is pronounced /tәng/. But in some cases pinyin “e” will be pronounced [e] when it is connected with other vowel. This case will be explained in the session of compound vowel sounds and allophone variations. English also has this phone like in the word larva which is pronounced /larvә/.
3) Mandarin pinyin “i”
Mandarin pinyin “i” is pronounced [i] as almost languages in the world have it. For example, the word nĭ (you) is pronounced [ni]. There are specific cases with vowel “i”. The first case is if the initial sounds are retroflex [ch], [zh], [sh], [r] or dental sibilant [c], [s], [z]; the “i” is pronounced [ә]. For example in the word lǎoshī (teacher) is pronounced /laushә/.
4) Mandarin pinyin “o”
Mandarin pinyin “o” is sometimes pronounced [o] when the initial phone is [w] or [u]. But it will be pronounced [u] when it is connected to several phones. This will be explained in compound final sounds and nasal final sounds.
5) Mandarin pinyin “u”
In many cases pinyin “u” is pronounced [u], but there is a special case. It is pronounced [ü] when the beginning of the syllables is pinyin “j” [c], “q” [k+c], “x” [s], or “y” [i]. For example, the word qu (go) which is pronounced /k+cü/. This will be explained in session allophone.
b) Compound Final Sounds (two vowels)
This type of final sounds is the same as diphthong. It is two vowels which are compounded and make new phone or phoneme. Generally it is almost the same as English diphthong except in some cases, Mandarin has own rules.
1) Mandarin pinyin “ai”
Mandarin pinyin “ai” is pronounced /ai/. For example, the word mǎi (to buy) is pronounced /mai/. The phoneme /ai/ is similar to the word I in English. So, this diphthong is also owned by English phonetic system.
2) Mandarin pinyin “ao”
Mandarin pinyin “ao” is pronounced /aw/. For example, the word hǎo (good/nice) is pronounced /haw/. It is similar to the word how in English. So, this diphthong is also owned by English phonetic system.
3) Mandarin pinyin “-ei”
Mandarin pinyin “ei” is pronounced /ei/. Both Mandarin and English have this phone. The example in English is the word lay which is pronounced /lei/ and in Mandarin, weì (Hello in telephone) is pronounced /wei/.
4) Mandarin pinyin “ia” or “ya”
Mandarin pinyin “ia” or “ya” are pronounced /ia/. Both Mandarin and English have this diphthong phone. The example in English is the word via which is pronounced /via/ and in Mandarin deng yixia (wait a minute) is pronounced /təng i:sia/.
5) Mandarin pinyin “iao” or “
Mandarin pinyin “iao” or “
6) Mandarin pinyin “ie” or”ye”
Mandarin pinyin “ie” or “ye” is pronounced /ye/ by native speaker of Mandarin. The example is the word xie (to write) which is pronounced /sie/.
7) Mandarin pinyin “you”
Mandarin pinyin “you” is pronounced /you/, the example is the word méi yŏu (nothing or does not have) which is pronounced /mei:you/. English does not have this kind of diphthong.
8) Mandarin pinyin “-ou”
Mandarin pinyin “ou” is pronounced /ou/ with a stressing in the [o]. For example, in the word gŏu (dog) is pronounced /kou/ with a stressing in the phone [o]. English phonetic system does not have this kind of diphthong, yet Mandarin has it.
9) Mandarin pinyin “wa”
Mandarin pinyin “wa” is pronounced /wa/. Both Mandarin and English have this phoneme. For example, in English the word wow is pronounced /waw/ and in Mandarin, the word qīngwā (frog) is pronounced /k+ciŋwa/.
10) Mandarin pinyin “-uai”
Mandarin pinyin “uai” is pronounced /wai/. For example, the word kuài (hurry) is pronounced /khwai/. English does not have this phoneme.
11) Mandarin pinyin “-üe”
Mandarin pinyin “üe” is pronounced / üe /. For example, the word xüé (to study) is pronounced /süe/. English does not have this kind of phoneme.
12) Mandarin pinyin “uo”
Mandarin pinyin “uo” is pronounced /uo/ just like in the word shuō (to talk). It is pronounced /∫uo/. English does not have this diphthong phoneme.
c) Nasal Final Sounds
Nasal final sounds are single or compound vowel followed by [n] or [ŋ] as the final phone of a syllable. Nasals are pronounced through the nose. In Mandarin Chinese, a sound which ends with [n] (an alveolar nasal) is known as front nasals, while a sound which ends with [ŋ] (a velar nasal) is known as back nasals.
1) Front Nasal
i. Mandarin pinyin “an”
Mandarin pinyin “an” is pronounced /an/. The example is the word kàn (to see/to watch) which is pronounced /khan/. English also has this phoneme as the final syllable like in the word fun which is pronounced /fan/.
ii. Mandarin pinyin “en”
Mandarin pinyin “en” is pronounced /әn/. For example, the word fēn (divide) is pronounced /fәn/. English also has this phoneme as the final syllable like in word moment which is pronounced /mowmәnt/.
iii. Mandarin pinyin “ian”
Mandarin pinyin “ian” is pronounced /ian/. For example, the word qian (money) is pronounced /k+cien/. This is a kind of allophone “e” in Mandarin and will be discussed in allophone variation session.
iv. Mandarin pinyin “in”
Mandarin pinyin “in” is pronounced /in/. The example is the word xīn (new) which is pronounced /sin/. English also has this phoneme as the final syllable like in word bin which is pronounced /bin/.
v. Mandarin pinyin “üan”
Mandarin pinyin “uan” is pronounced /üan/. For example, the word xuán (to spin) is pronounced /süan/. English does not have final /wan/ in its phonetic system.
vi. Mandarin pinyin “ün”
This sound occurs only in the syllables jun /cün/, qun /k+cün/, xun /sün/ and yun /ün/. English absolutely does not have this kind of the phoneme as the final syllable.
2) Back Nasal
i. Mandarin pinyin “-eng”
In Mandarin, pinyin “eng” is pronounced /әŋ/ like in the word neng (can/able) which is pronounced /nәŋ/. English does not have this phonetic system.
ii. Mandarin pinyin “-ang”
Mandarin pinyin “ang” is pronounced /aŋ/, e.g. the word yinháng (bank) is pronounced /i:nhaŋ/. English has this phonetic system just like in word swung which is pronounced /swaŋ/.
iii. Mandarin pinyin “-ing”
Mandarin pinyin “ing” is pronounced /iŋ/. The example is in the word líng (zero) which is pronounced /liŋ/. English has this phoneme as the final syllable such as in word swimming which is pronounced /swimmiŋ/.
iv. Mandarin pinyin “-ong”
Mandarin pinyin “ong” is pronounced /uŋ/ like in word long (dragon) which is pronounced /luŋ/. English does not have this phonetic system.
d) Special Case of the Final [~r]
Sometimes the syllable "er" (
) is added to the end of words – especially on nouns. This is the most common in Chinese spoken by people from
A. The Comparison of the Allophone Variations of Mandarin and English Phone
It is known that in English phonetics, an allophone is shown in [p], [t], and [k] phones. [pʰ] in pin and [p] in spin are allophones of the phoneme /p/ in English because they occur in complementary distribution. English speakers generally treat these as the same sound, but they are different; the first is aspirated and the second is unaspirated (plain). Plain [p] also occurs like the “p” in cap /kæp/, or the second “p” in paper /pʰeipɚ/. In contexts where plain p appears in English like spin, cap, paper, speakers may hear it like /b/ since the “p” in these contexts lacks the burst of air found with the “p” in pin.
In Mandarin, aspiration is not an allophone because Mandarin speakers treat aspirated sound as different sound (Huang and Friends, 1997). [t] is different phone from [th]. It is not like in English phonetic system. Besides, for Mandarin speaker an allophone occurs in vowel [o], [a], and [u].
1. Allophone of Mandarin [o]
The allophone of Mandarin [o] occurs when [o] begins with [u]; and when it begins with any phone which ends with nasal [ŋ]. When phone [o] begins with initial sound [u] or [w], the phone [o] sounds like the standard IPA’s [o]. For example, the word wŏ (I/me) it is pronounced /wo/. But, when [o] begins with any phone which is ended with nasal [ŋ], the phone [o] becomes [u]. The example in the word lōng (dragon) will be pronounced /luŋ/.
2. Allophone of Mandarin [u]
The Allophone of Mandarin [u] occurs when [u] begins with palatal as the initials. The phone [u] becomes [ü]. The examples of syllables which should be pronounced [u], but pronounced [ü] are as follows:
1) Ju (to catch) is pronounced [cü]
2) qu (go) is pronounced [k+cü]
3) xue (to study) is pronounced [süe]
4) yu (language) is pronounced [ü], the initial consonant is not pronounced.
3. Allophone of Mandarin [a]
Mandarin has phone [a] like the word mā (mother) which is pronounced [ma]. But there is an allophone of [a] in mandarin. The allophone of [a] occurs when [a] begins with [i] and ends with nasal [n]. The phone [a] becomes [e]. The example is the word qian (money) which is not pronounced [k+cian] but it is pronounced [k+cien].
B. The Comparison Between Mandarin and English Suprasegmental Phoneme
In this research, the researcher only focuses on one suprasegmental phoneme, the Tone or pitch of the language. The researcher focuses on it because the tone is the most contrastive within both languages English and Mandarin. Alwarg states that tonal languages such as Mandarin also contain lexical tones, tones which produce a different meaning when a syllable is produced with a different tone contour (2007: par. 7). Besides, English uses intonation to express emphasis, contrast, emotion, or other such atmospheres.
In Mandarin Chinese there are four tones:
1. The 1st tone is marked with a line ("ma" + "-" = "mā").
This is a high and constant tone; it is a steady high sound.
2. The 2nd tone is marked with a rising line ("ma" + "´" = "má").
This is a rising tone that grows stronger; it is a sound that rises from mid-level tone to high.
3. The 3rd tone is marked with a hook ("ma" + "v" = "mă").
This tone is first falling and fading, then rising and growing strong. It has a mid-low to low descent; at the end of a sentence or before a pause, it is then followed by a rising pitch.
4. The 4th tone is marked with a falling line ("ma" + "`" = "mà").
This is a quickly falling and fading tone. It features a sharp downward accent from high to low, and is a shorter tone, similar to curt commands (“tones and marking of tones”, 2006: par.1).
Mandarin not only has the allophone, but also allotone. An allotone is one of several similar tones that belong to the same phoneme which depends on the sequences of tone (“Standard Mandarin-tones”, 2007:par. 2). When a Mandarin native speaker pronounces a sequence of tones, the tones will not always remain the same. The most common details to be noted are:
1. The word yī which is meant "one" is usually of the 1st tone. However this word will be pronounced with the 2nd tone when directly preceding the 4th tone. It will be pronounced with the 4th tone when directly preceding the 2nd or the 3rd tones. Example: yīgè is pronounced as yígè, while yīběn is pronounced as yìběn.
2. The word bù (no) is usually of the 4th tone. However this word will be pronounced with the 2nd tone when directly preceding the 4th tone. Example: bùshì (is not) is pronounced as búshì
3. Every syllable that is usually pronounced with the 3rd tone will turn into the 2nd tone when directly preceding the 3rd tone. For example: liăng běn shū (two books) is pronounced as "liáng běn shū.
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