This part is the sub topic of Theoretical Framework in Chapter II Theoretical Approach and Framework of the research entitled "A Comparative study between Mandarin and English phonological System".
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The earliest known residents of the British Isles were the Celts, who spoke Celtic languages—a separate branch of the Indo-European language family tree. Over the centuries the British Isles were invaded and conquered by various peoples, who brought their languages and customs with them as they settled in their new lives. There is now very little Celtic influence left in English. The earliest time when we can say that English was spoken was in the 5th century CE (Common Era—a politically correct term used to replace AD).
The connection of word “England” is from “Engla Land” or “Angle Land” (Land of the Angles, a people of northern old Germany). Their name lives on in the district of England named East Anglia, and also in the Anglican Church. In the present day there is still a region of Germany known as Angeln, which is likely the same area from which the original Angles came. Angeln lies in Schleswig-Holstein on the eastern side of the Jutland peninsula near the cities of Flensburg and Schleswig.
Previous topic : 4. Phonological System of Mandarin
Tampilkan postingan dengan label Mandarin Language. Tampilkan semua postingan
Tampilkan postingan dengan label Mandarin Language. Tampilkan semua postingan
Sabtu, 16 Mei 2009
4. Phonological System of Mandarin
This part is the sub topic of Theoretical Framework in Chapter II Theoretical Approach and Framework of the research entitled "A Comparative study between Mandarin and English phonological System".
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The phonemic structure of Mandarin is quite simple. Each character corresponds to one syllable (which corresponds to a part of an English word, and entire word or more than one word). Chinese syllables consist of three elements: initial sound, final sound and tone. The initial sounds are consonants and the final sounds contain at least one vowel. Some syllables consist only of an initial sound or a final sound.
a) Consonant (Initial sound)
In Mandarin Chinese there are 21 initial sounds:
| | Unaspirated | ||||
| b | p | m | f | | |
| d | t | n | | l | |
| g | k | | h | | |
| j | q | | x | | |
| z | c | | s | | |
| zh | ch | | sh | r |
(“Mandarin Chinese Phonetics”, 2008: par.2)
b) Vowel (Final sound)
In Mandarin Chinese there are 29 final sounds:
| a, e, i, o, u, ü | |
| ai, ao, ei, ia, iao, ie, iou, ou, ua, uai, üe, uei, uo | |
| 6 front nasals: an, en, ian, in, üan, ün 4 back nasals: ang, eng, ing, ong |
(“Mandarin Chinese Phonetics”, 2008: par.2)
c) Tone
In Chinese it is always very important to pronounce words with correct tone. In transliterated Chinese, tone markings are written over the central vowels in most syllables. Some syllables have no specific tone or zero tone, and then no sign is put above any vowel. In Mandarin Chinese there are four tones:
1) The 1st tone is marked with a line ("ma" + "-" = "mā"). This is a high, even and constant tone.
2) The 2nd tone is marked with a rising line ("ma" + "´" = "má"). This is a rising tone that grows stronger.
3) The 3rd tone is marked with a hook ("ma" + "v" = "mă"). This tone is first falling and fading, then rising and growing strong.
4) The 4th tone is marked with a falling line ("ma" + "`" = "mà"). This is a quickly falling and fading tone. (“Tones and Marking of Tones”, 2006: par.1)
There is a tone which is different from those four tones, it sounds like gliding tone. It is also known as “neutral tone”. The tone is usually placed at the end where the previous syllable ended. The neutral tone is particularly difficult for non-native speakers to master correctly because it is so rarely used.
previous topic : 3. The History of Mandarin (Chinese Language)
Selasa, 21 April 2009
3. The History of Mandarin (Chinese Language)
This part is the sub topic of Theoretical Framework in Chapter II Theoretical Approach and Framework of the research entitled "A Comparative study between Mandarin and English phonological System".
Since ancient history, the Chinese language has always consisted of a wide variety of dialects. Confucius, for example, used yǎyán, or "elegant speech". It is a little bit different from daily dialects. Besides, text during the Han Dynasty refers to tōngyǔ, or "common language". However, all of these standard dialects were probably unknown outside the educated elite; even among the elites, pronunciations may have been very different, as the unifying factor of all Chinese dialects was a written standard, not a spoken one.
The Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644) and the Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1912) began to use the term guānhuà or "official speech". It refers to the speech used at the courts. The term "Mandarin" comes directly from the Portuguese. The word mandarin was first used to name the Chinese bureaucratic officials (i.e., the mandarins), because the Portuguese, under the misapprehension that the Sanskrit word (mentri) that was used throughout Asia to denote "an official" which had some connection with the Portuguese word mandar (to order somebody to do something), and having observed that these officials all "issued orders", chose to call them mandarins. Because of this case, the Portuguese immediately started to use the special language that these officials spoke amongst themselves as "Guanhua" "the language of the mandarins", "the mandarin language" or, simply, "Mandarin". It is a fact that Guanhua was, to a certain extent, an artificial language based upon a set of conventions. It is precisely what makes it such an appropriate term for Modern Standard Chinese (i.e., Northern Chinese family of languages for grammar and meaning, and the specific pronunciation of Beijing for its utterance).
It seems that during the early part of this period, Beijing dialect became increased. In the 17th century, the Empire had set up an Academy as an effort to make pronunciation conform to the Beijing standard. But these attempts just had little success. At 19th century, it is difficult for the emperor to understand some of his own ministers in court, who did not always try to follow any standard pronunciation. Nevertheless, by 1909, fall of Qing Dynasty had established the Beijing dialect as guóyǔ, or the "national language".
After the Republic of China was established in 1912, there was more success in promoting a common national language. A Commission on the Unification of Pronunciation was convened with delegates from the entire country. At first there was an attempt to introduce a standard pronunciation with elements from regional dialects. But this was deemed too difficult to promote, and in 1924 this attempt was abandoned and the Beijing dialect became the major source of standard national pronunciation, due to the status of that dialect as a prestigious dialect since the Qing Dynasty. Elements from other dialects continue to exist in the standard language, but as exceptions rather than the rule.
In 1949, the Republic of China People continued the effort. In 1955, guóyǔ was renamed pǔtōnghuà or "common speech. After the handovers of Hong Kong, the term pǔtōnghuà is used in Special Administrative Regions of the People Republic of China, and the pinyin system is widely used.
In both mainland China and Taiwan, the use of Standard Mandarin is the main language used in the educational system. As a result, Standard Mandarin is spoken fluently by most people in Mainland China and in Taiwan. However in Hong Kong, due to historical and linguistic reasons, the language of education and both formal and informal speech remains the local Standard Cantonese but standard Mandarin is becoming increase.
The advent of the 20th century has seen many profound changes in Standard Mandarin. Many polite and humble words which were in use in imperial China have almost entirely disappeared in daily modern-day’s conversation. Standard Mandarin, such as jiàn (my humble) and guì (your honorable).
Since ancient history, the Chinese language has always consisted of a wide variety of dialects. Confucius, for example, used yǎyán, or "elegant speech". It is a little bit different from daily dialects. Besides, text during the Han Dynasty refers to tōngyǔ, or "common language". However, all of these standard dialects were probably unknown outside the educated elite; even among the elites, pronunciations may have been very different, as the unifying factor of all Chinese dialects was a written standard, not a spoken one.
The Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644) and the Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1912) began to use the term guānhuà or "official speech". It refers to the speech used at the courts. The term "Mandarin" comes directly from the Portuguese. The word mandarin was first used to name the Chinese bureaucratic officials (i.e., the mandarins), because the Portuguese, under the misapprehension that the Sanskrit word (mentri) that was used throughout Asia to denote "an official" which had some connection with the Portuguese word mandar (to order somebody to do something), and having observed that these officials all "issued orders", chose to call them mandarins. Because of this case, the Portuguese immediately started to use the special language that these officials spoke amongst themselves as "Guanhua" "the language of the mandarins", "the mandarin language" or, simply, "Mandarin". It is a fact that Guanhua was, to a certain extent, an artificial language based upon a set of conventions. It is precisely what makes it such an appropriate term for Modern Standard Chinese (i.e., Northern Chinese family of languages for grammar and meaning, and the specific pronunciation of Beijing for its utterance).
It seems that during the early part of this period, Beijing dialect became increased. In the 17th century, the Empire had set up an Academy as an effort to make pronunciation conform to the Beijing standard. But these attempts just had little success. At 19th century, it is difficult for the emperor to understand some of his own ministers in court, who did not always try to follow any standard pronunciation. Nevertheless, by 1909, fall of Qing Dynasty had established the Beijing dialect as guóyǔ, or the "national language".
After the Republic of China was established in 1912, there was more success in promoting a common national language. A Commission on the Unification of Pronunciation was convened with delegates from the entire country. At first there was an attempt to introduce a standard pronunciation with elements from regional dialects. But this was deemed too difficult to promote, and in 1924 this attempt was abandoned and the Beijing dialect became the major source of standard national pronunciation, due to the status of that dialect as a prestigious dialect since the Qing Dynasty. Elements from other dialects continue to exist in the standard language, but as exceptions rather than the rule.
In 1949, the Republic of China People continued the effort. In 1955, guóyǔ was renamed pǔtōnghuà or "common speech. After the handovers of Hong Kong, the term pǔtōnghuà is used in Special Administrative Regions of the People Republic of China, and the pinyin system is widely used.
In both mainland China and Taiwan, the use of Standard Mandarin is the main language used in the educational system. As a result, Standard Mandarin is spoken fluently by most people in Mainland China and in Taiwan. However in Hong Kong, due to historical and linguistic reasons, the language of education and both formal and informal speech remains the local Standard Cantonese but standard Mandarin is becoming increase.
The advent of the 20th century has seen many profound changes in Standard Mandarin. Many polite and humble words which were in use in imperial China have almost entirely disappeared in daily modern-day’s conversation. Standard Mandarin, such as jiàn (my humble) and guì (your honorable).
2. Phonological System
This part is the sub topic of Theoretical Framework in Chapter II Theoretical Approach and Framework of the research entitled "A Comparative study between Mandarin and English phonological System".
a) Phonology & Phonetics
Phonology is the study of sound systems and abstract sound units such as phonemes and distinctive features. In phonology, there is a subfield of segmental phonology. It deals with the analysis of speech into phonemes (or segmental phonemes), which correspond fairly well to phonetic segments of the analyzed speech. (“Segments”, 2007: par. 4).
Fromkin and friends (1990: 64) state that Phonology is the study of the sound patterns of human language; it is also the kind of knowledge that speaker has about the sound patterns of their particular language. According to Hyman (1975: 2), Phonology has been defined as the study of sound systems, that is, the study of speech sounds structure and function in languages.
According to Fromkin and friends, Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that are utilized by all human language to represent meanings (1990: 27). Another source states that Phonetics is the study of the sounds of human speech. It is concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds (phones), and their production, audition and perception (“Segments”, 2007: par. 6).
According to Hyman, a phonetic study tells how the sounds of a language are made and what their acoustic properties are. A phonological study tells how these sounds are used to convey meaning (1975: 2).
Phonetics has three main branches:
1) articulatory phonetics, concerned with the positions and movements of the lips, tongue, vocal tract and folds and other speech organs in producing speech;
2) acoustic phonetics, concerned with the properties of the sound waves and how they are received by the inner ear; and
3) auditory phonetics, concerned with speech perception, principally how the brain forms perceptual representations of the input which is received.
There are over a hundred different phones recognized as distinctive by the International Phonetic Association and transcribed in their International Phonetic Alphabet. International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a system of phonetic notation based on the Latin alphabet, devised by the International Phonetic Association as a standardized representation of the sounds of spoken language. The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are distinctive in spoken language: phonemes, intonation, and the separation of words and syllables. To represent additional qualities of speech such as tooth-gnashing, lisping, and sounds made with a cleft palate, an extended set of symbols called the Extended IPA is commonly used.(International Phonetic Alphabet, 2008: par. 1)
b) Phoneme
It is known that phoneme is the smallest structural unit that distinguishes meaning. Phonemic is a transcription that only indicates the different phonemes of a language. Such transcriptions are enclosed within virgules (slashes), / /; these show that each enclosed symbol is described as phonemically meaningful. Besides, a transcription that indicates more detail, such as allophonic variation is called phonetic, and is enclosed in square brackets, [ ]. (“Phoneme”, 2008: par. 1)
Fries states that phonemes are not a letter although sometimes a letter of alphabet may represent a phoneme, as the p in pin, but a phoneme is never a letter; it is a unit of sound. Hanzi Chinese does not have alphabetical letter, yet it has phonemes. (1957: 9). Phoneme is different from letter; the letter p in telegraph does not represent the phoneme /p/ there.
According to Fromkin and friends (1990: 66), the first rule to determine the phonemes of any language is when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string is called minimal pair. Another source states that phonemes could be assigned if two sounds which are phonetically similar occur in the same phonetic environment, and if the substitution of one sound for the other results in a difference meaning (Hyman, 1975: 60). For examples of minimal pairs are sip and zip; man and can; run and fun; those words are minimal pairs.
c) Allophone
In phonetics, an allophone is one of several similar phones that belong to the same phoneme; speakers of a particular language perceive a phoneme as a single distinctive sound in that language. Thus an allophone is a phone considered as a member of one phoneme (“Allophone”, 2007: par.1). For example, [pʰ] as in pin and [p] as in spin are allophones for the phoneme /p/ in the English language because they occur in complementary distribution. English speakers generally treat these as the same sound, but they are different; the first is aspirated and the second is unaspirated (plain). Plain [p] also occurs as the p in cap [kæp], or the second p in paper [pʰeɪ.pɚ]. In contexts where plain p appears in English like spin, cap, paper, speakers may hear it as b since the p in these contexts lacks the burst of air found with the “p” in pin.
d) Suprasegmental Phoneme or Prosody.
In phonetics, segment is used primarily “to refer to any discrete unit that can be identified, either physically or auditorily, in the stream of speech”. (“Segment”, 2007: par.1). So that, segment is a phonetic alphabet which represents individual speech sound. Besides, suprasegmental phoneme is acoustic properties of speech that cannot be predicted from a local window on the orthographic (or similar) transcription. (“Prosody”, 2007: par.1). These properties are pitch, length, and stress. In this research, the researcher only focuses on pitch (tone).
A speaker in all language has an ability to control the pitch of his voice including when a speaker is speaking. There are two kinds of controlled pitch movement; it is high-voice pitch and low-voice pitch. These movements are known in human language as tone.
Tone is the use of pitch in language to distinguish words. All languages use intonation to express emphasis, contrast, emotion, or other such atmospheres, but not every language uses tone to distinguish lexical meaning (“Tone”, 2007: par.1). According to the explanation about tone, it is very closely related to the pitch, or frequency of the voice. According to Laver in Man Gao, there are two types of tone system: word-based tone system and syllable-based tone system. Some languages -such as English- use word-based tone system whose pitch is associated with the entire word. But Mandarin Language uses syllable-based tone system whose pitch is associated with the syllable (2002: 6-7).
Tone Language is a language that uses pitch of individual syllables to contrast meanings (Hyman, 1975: 85). Tonal language has two broad categories: Register tone systems and contour tone systems. Register tone systems is tones that signal meaning differences. But in some languages, tones change pitch on single syllables. Moving pitches that signal meaning differences are called contour tone system.
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Other Topics of research are here.
a) Phonology & Phonetics
Phonology is the study of sound systems and abstract sound units such as phonemes and distinctive features. In phonology, there is a subfield of segmental phonology. It deals with the analysis of speech into phonemes (or segmental phonemes), which correspond fairly well to phonetic segments of the analyzed speech. (“Segments”, 2007: par. 4).
Fromkin and friends (1990: 64) state that Phonology is the study of the sound patterns of human language; it is also the kind of knowledge that speaker has about the sound patterns of their particular language. According to Hyman (1975: 2), Phonology has been defined as the study of sound systems, that is, the study of speech sounds structure and function in languages.
According to Fromkin and friends, Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that are utilized by all human language to represent meanings (1990: 27). Another source states that Phonetics is the study of the sounds of human speech. It is concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds (phones), and their production, audition and perception (“Segments”, 2007: par. 6).
According to Hyman, a phonetic study tells how the sounds of a language are made and what their acoustic properties are. A phonological study tells how these sounds are used to convey meaning (1975: 2).
Phonetics has three main branches:
1) articulatory phonetics, concerned with the positions and movements of the lips, tongue, vocal tract and folds and other speech organs in producing speech;
2) acoustic phonetics, concerned with the properties of the sound waves and how they are received by the inner ear; and
3) auditory phonetics, concerned with speech perception, principally how the brain forms perceptual representations of the input which is received.
There are over a hundred different phones recognized as distinctive by the International Phonetic Association and transcribed in their International Phonetic Alphabet. International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a system of phonetic notation based on the Latin alphabet, devised by the International Phonetic Association as a standardized representation of the sounds of spoken language. The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are distinctive in spoken language: phonemes, intonation, and the separation of words and syllables. To represent additional qualities of speech such as tooth-gnashing, lisping, and sounds made with a cleft palate, an extended set of symbols called the Extended IPA is commonly used.(International Phonetic Alphabet, 2008: par. 1)
b) Phoneme
It is known that phoneme is the smallest structural unit that distinguishes meaning. Phonemic is a transcription that only indicates the different phonemes of a language. Such transcriptions are enclosed within virgules (slashes), / /; these show that each enclosed symbol is described as phonemically meaningful. Besides, a transcription that indicates more detail, such as allophonic variation is called phonetic, and is enclosed in square brackets, [ ]. (“Phoneme”, 2008: par. 1)
Fries states that phonemes are not a letter although sometimes a letter of alphabet may represent a phoneme, as the p in pin, but a phoneme is never a letter; it is a unit of sound. Hanzi Chinese does not have alphabetical letter, yet it has phonemes. (1957: 9). Phoneme is different from letter; the letter p in telegraph does not represent the phoneme /p/ there.
According to Fromkin and friends (1990: 66), the first rule to determine the phonemes of any language is when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string is called minimal pair. Another source states that phonemes could be assigned if two sounds which are phonetically similar occur in the same phonetic environment, and if the substitution of one sound for the other results in a difference meaning (Hyman, 1975: 60). For examples of minimal pairs are sip and zip; man and can; run and fun; those words are minimal pairs.
c) Allophone
In phonetics, an allophone is one of several similar phones that belong to the same phoneme; speakers of a particular language perceive a phoneme as a single distinctive sound in that language. Thus an allophone is a phone considered as a member of one phoneme (“Allophone”, 2007: par.1). For example, [pʰ] as in pin and [p] as in spin are allophones for the phoneme /p/ in the English language because they occur in complementary distribution. English speakers generally treat these as the same sound, but they are different; the first is aspirated and the second is unaspirated (plain). Plain [p] also occurs as the p in cap [kæp], or the second p in paper [pʰeɪ.pɚ]. In contexts where plain p appears in English like spin, cap, paper, speakers may hear it as b since the p in these contexts lacks the burst of air found with the “p” in pin.
d) Suprasegmental Phoneme or Prosody.
In phonetics, segment is used primarily “to refer to any discrete unit that can be identified, either physically or auditorily, in the stream of speech”. (“Segment”, 2007: par.1). So that, segment is a phonetic alphabet which represents individual speech sound. Besides, suprasegmental phoneme is acoustic properties of speech that cannot be predicted from a local window on the orthographic (or similar) transcription. (“Prosody”, 2007: par.1). These properties are pitch, length, and stress. In this research, the researcher only focuses on pitch (tone).
A speaker in all language has an ability to control the pitch of his voice including when a speaker is speaking. There are two kinds of controlled pitch movement; it is high-voice pitch and low-voice pitch. These movements are known in human language as tone.
Tone is the use of pitch in language to distinguish words. All languages use intonation to express emphasis, contrast, emotion, or other such atmospheres, but not every language uses tone to distinguish lexical meaning (“Tone”, 2007: par.1). According to the explanation about tone, it is very closely related to the pitch, or frequency of the voice. According to Laver in Man Gao, there are two types of tone system: word-based tone system and syllable-based tone system. Some languages -such as English- use word-based tone system whose pitch is associated with the entire word. But Mandarin Language uses syllable-based tone system whose pitch is associated with the syllable (2002: 6-7).
Tone Language is a language that uses pitch of individual syllables to contrast meanings (Hyman, 1975: 85). Tonal language has two broad categories: Register tone systems and contour tone systems. Register tone systems is tones that signal meaning differences. But in some languages, tones change pitch on single syllables. Moving pitches that signal meaning differences are called contour tone system.
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Other Topics of research are here.
Minggu, 08 Februari 2009
CHAPTER II THEORETICAL APPROACH AND FRAMEWORK
This is the theoretical approach of the research entitled " A Comparative Study between Mandarin and English Phonological System.
A. Theoretical Approach
Based on the reason for choosing the subject, there are many points of problems. To make the research focus, the researcher takes phonological aspect as the basic knowledge background; or in other words, the researcher uses phonological approach to analyze some problems in this research paper. It is understood that phone is speech sound which is symbolized by [ ], and then phonetics is the study of the sounds of human speech. It is concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds (phones), and their production, audition and perception, as opposed to phonology, which is the study of sound systems and abstract sound units (such as phonemes and distinctive features). Phonetics deals with the sounds themselves rather than the contexts in which they are used in languages (“Segments”, 2007: par.6).
Shortly, phonetics is the study of speech sound as sounds in any human language; and phonology is the study of sound system or sound pattern. Then, what is phoneme? Phoneme is the theoretical representation of a sound. It is a sound of a language as represented (or imagined) without reference to its position in a word or phrase (“Phoneme”, 2007: par.1). In short, phoneme is stock of sounds units in each human language. It is symbolized by / /.
It is known that English and Mandarin are different in language family; English is from Indo-German family and Mandarin is from Sino-Tibetan family language. Because the research compares two languages which are in different family in language, the researcher uses contrastive approach. According to Poedjosoedarmo (unpublished: 49), contrastive analysis is a research which compares two languages by opposing the language element of two languages. The researcher analyzes the phonological system, so that this research is done by analyzing the consonant, vowel, and also suprasegmental phoneme.
According to Mahsun (2005: 240-245) There are some steps to do the research:
1. To compare all of the phenomena which can be applied in each category
In this step, there are two activities which will be done; writing (coding), giving commentary to the writing by comparing it.
2. To integrate the category and the feature
The researcher compares the phenomena which appear with the characteristic of the data which are produced in the first step.
3. To limit the scope of the theory
The researcher must be able to limit some theories which are formed in two steps above based on the relevance and then put it into a category and the wider characteristic.
4. To write the theory
The researcher must hold a seminar to discuss the theory before the researcher writes it and publishes it.
From the explanation above, it is known that this analysis will find a cyclic relation between collecting data and analyzing data.
Previous part : Chapter I ><> Next : theoretical framework
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL APPROACH AND FRAMEWORK
THEORETICAL APPROACH AND FRAMEWORK
A. Theoretical Approach
Based on the reason for choosing the subject, there are many points of problems. To make the research focus, the researcher takes phonological aspect as the basic knowledge background; or in other words, the researcher uses phonological approach to analyze some problems in this research paper. It is understood that phone is speech sound which is symbolized by [ ], and then phonetics is the study of the sounds of human speech. It is concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds (phones), and their production, audition and perception, as opposed to phonology, which is the study of sound systems and abstract sound units (such as phonemes and distinctive features). Phonetics deals with the sounds themselves rather than the contexts in which they are used in languages (“Segments”, 2007: par.6).
Shortly, phonetics is the study of speech sound as sounds in any human language; and phonology is the study of sound system or sound pattern. Then, what is phoneme? Phoneme is the theoretical representation of a sound. It is a sound of a language as represented (or imagined) without reference to its position in a word or phrase (“Phoneme”, 2007: par.1). In short, phoneme is stock of sounds units in each human language. It is symbolized by / /.
It is known that English and Mandarin are different in language family; English is from Indo-German family and Mandarin is from Sino-Tibetan family language. Because the research compares two languages which are in different family in language, the researcher uses contrastive approach. According to Poedjosoedarmo (unpublished: 49), contrastive analysis is a research which compares two languages by opposing the language element of two languages. The researcher analyzes the phonological system, so that this research is done by analyzing the consonant, vowel, and also suprasegmental phoneme.
According to Mahsun (2005: 240-245) There are some steps to do the research:
1. To compare all of the phenomena which can be applied in each category
In this step, there are two activities which will be done; writing (coding), giving commentary to the writing by comparing it.
2. To integrate the category and the feature
The researcher compares the phenomena which appear with the characteristic of the data which are produced in the first step.
3. To limit the scope of the theory
The researcher must be able to limit some theories which are formed in two steps above based on the relevance and then put it into a category and the wider characteristic.
4. To write the theory
The researcher must hold a seminar to discuss the theory before the researcher writes it and publishes it.
From the explanation above, it is known that this analysis will find a cyclic relation between collecting data and analyzing data.
Previous part : Chapter I ><> Next : theoretical framework
Minggu, 26 Oktober 2008
A COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN MANDARIN AND ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM
ABSTRACT
This research entitled A COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN MANDARIN AND ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM is intended to explain about phonemic system of Mandarin and English. This research also discusses the allophone variation and also the suprasegmental.
This research uses qualitative method. The data are taken from books, dictionary, and also oral speaking. The researcher analyzes the data which is not designed using statistics procedures. To collect the data, the researcher uses Metode Simak (Observation Method). The researcher also uses Teknik Catat (Writing Technique) to collect the data. The researcher uses comparative analysis to analyze and describe the data by comparing two languages based on the kind of sounds of each language. The researcher uses phonological approach as the basic knowledge background to analyze some problems in this research paper.
The result of the research shows that there are some different phones between English and Mandarin phonemic system. The different speech sounds (phone) between English and Mandarin are in initial sounds and final sounds. This research also shows the difference function of suprasegmental phoneme especially the tone between English and Mandarin.
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